Qualitative Urine Beta-HCG - Urine Pregnancy Test

Overview & Deion

This test detects the level in the Urine of the pregnancy hormone known as human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG).
Who is a candidate for the test?

HCG is a hormone that is produced by the placenta. It is detectable in the blood and Urine within 10 days after fertilization. After implantation of the fertilized egg, the levels of HCG rise rapidly in the first trimester and reach a peak 60 to 80 days after implantation. HCG is thought to be important in converting the normal corpus luteum into the corpus luteum of pregnancy. The corpus luteum is a hormone-secreting structure that grows on the surface of the ovary after ovulation takes place. In pregnancy, functions of the corpus luteum include:
promoting the growth of the fetus through the 12th week of pregnancy.

stimulating the development of fetal sex organs.

promoting the synthesis of male hormones by the fetal testes.

Because HCG is produced by the placenta, it is an indicator of pregnancy. HCG is produced regardless of whether implantation of the egg occurs within the uterus or outside of the uterus.
Most commonly, this test is performed to confirm or rule out pregnancy. Women of childbearing age who have not been using birth control while having intercourse should be screened with a quantitative HCG test if they are having the following symptoms:
delayed menstrual period.

breast tenderness.

pelvic pain.

irregular spotting or bleeding.

nausea or vomiting.

How is the test performed?

The person supplies a Urine sample. Ideally, this is from the first urination of the morning. This Urine tends to be highly concentrated. The sample is sent to the lab and analyzed for the presence of HCG. The hormone is measured in terms of quantity per cubic centimeter of urine. The hormone is detected with a test that uses specialized antibodies. These substances clot with the HCG molecules. When this happens, the test is deemed positive. It is this reaction that makes the test strip turn color in over-the-counter pregnancy tests.

Preparation & Expectations

What is involved in preparation for the test?

No special preparation is necessary for this test.

Results and Values

What do the test results mean?

Abnormal test results may indicate:
threatened or spontaneous abortion, or miscarriage.

ectopic pregnancy, which is a pregnancy located outside the uterus.

an abnormal egg.

hydatidiform mole, which is a tumor of the placenta with death of the fetus.

choriocarcinoma, which is a tumor of the placenta that causes profuse bleeding.

multiple pregnancy, such as twins or triplets.

Incorrect results, which are called false-positive or false-negative, results may occur with:
blood or protein in the urine.

use of phenothiazines, such as prochlorperazine or promethazine.

use of penicillin.

use of methadone.

urinary tract infection.

hepatitis.

Other potential diagnoses that may mimic pregnancy but have negative HCG results include:
ovarian cysts.

bleeding without ovulation.

dysfunctional uterine bleeding, which is abnormal bleeding from the uterus that occurs outside of the normal menstrual flow.

pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), which is widespread infection of the ovaries, tubes, and other reproductive organs.

polycystic ovary disease, which is an endocrine disorder causing multiple cysts on the ovaries.

ovarian cancer.

menopause.


Attribution

Author:Eva Martin, MD
Date Written:
Editor:
Edit Date:
Reviewer:Joan McNicholl, PharmD
Date Reviewed:04/16/01

Acetabular Dysplasia - Congenital Dis of the Hip

Overview, Causes, & Risk Factors

This condition refers to malformation of the hip joint during fetal development. In this condition, the head of the thighbone or femur, does not sit properly in the socket of the pelvis.
What is going on in the body?

Joints and bones usually grow normally during fetal development. However, in a small percene of newborns, the pelvis has not formed its usual deep socket. Therefore, the head of the thighbone can slip partially or completely out of the socket.
What are the causes and risks of the condition?

This condition can be caused by the way the legs of the fetus are positioned in the womb. It is more likely to occur in people with a family history of the disorder. It also affects girls more often than boys. It is three times more likely to occur in the left hip than the right. It is more common after a breech delivery, among large babies and in twins. congenital hip dis is frequently associated with other conditions such as spina bifida, sternomastoid torticollis, or Down syndrome.

Symptoms & Signs

What are the signs and symptoms of the condition?

Symptoms vary according to the severity of the problem and the age of the person. An infant will often have no symptoms or pain. The common symptom found with congenital hip dis is a "click" that is heard near the hips as the hips are moved during the newborn exam.
Signs that there might be a problem include:
a baby that has odd skin folds on its thigh or trouble spreading its legs during a diaper change
a toddler that is slow to walk or walks with a limp
As the person grows older, especially in adulthood, the chances of arthritic hip pain increases.

Diagnosis & Tests

How is the condition diagnosed?

Most of the time, a healthcare provider can detect this condition when examining a newborn's hips. The healthcare provider may do a Ortolani test, in which the thighs are spread apart, or the Barlow test, where the knees are brought together, to listen for the characteristic "click" that is heard with congenital hip dis.
Less evident cases can be confirmed by joint x-rays. These x-rays can be performed with the injection of dye into the hip joint. Detection can also be made by doing special tests, such as ultrasound or MRI. The earlier the diagnoses is made the better are the chances for normal hip function.

Prevention & Expectations

What can be done to prevent the condition?

There is no way to prevent this condition.
What are the long-term effects of the condition?

It is possible that the hip joint will continue to develop poorly. This can result in a short leg, a limp, restricted motion of the joint, and painful arthritis.
What are the risks to others?

There are no risks to others.

Treatment & Monitoring

What are the treatments for the condition?

Treatment is directed toward the development of a normal hip joint. The head of the femur and the socket of the pelvis tend to develop more normally when they are correctly positioned next to one another. This can be achieved by using extra diapers, a harness, a brace, or a cast.
If these methods don't work, the orthopedic surgeon may recommend an operation on the hip, ligaments, and tendons, called a corrective wedge osteotomy.
A cast will be placed afterward to seat the hip properly. Follow-up joint x-rays can determine the degree of success. In young children, it may be necessary to operate on the pelvis to redirect the structures.
What are the side effects of the treatments?

Side effects include possible discomfort from a brace or cast. If surgery is needed, side effects can include nausea and vomiting from the anesthesia, and infection from the surgery site.
What happens after treatment for the condition?

If treatment has begun within the first 3 months of life treatment is usually successful and no further treatment is necessary. The older a child is the more complicated and lengthy treatment may be. Treatment may involve multiple operations and braces. Satisfactory hip function is difficult to restore if a child is older than 5.
Possible complications include:
the joint fails to respond to treatment
the hip becomes partially or completely dislocated again
the femoral head lacks a blood supply
one leg ends up being shorter than the other
arthritis or infection
How is the condition monitored?

Periodic checkups with the healthcare provider are helpful.

Attribution

Author:John A.K. Davies, MD
Date Written:
Editor:Smith, Elizabeth, BA
Edit Date:06/14/00
Reviewer:Eileen McLaughlin, RN, BSN
Date Reviewed:08/07/01

Carcinoma of the Lung - Primary Lung Cancer

Overview, Causes, & Risk Factors

Primary lung cancer is a very serious respiratory disorder that begins in the airways and air sacs of the lungs.
What is going on in the body?

cancer of the lung can begin in the lining of the trachea, the smaller airways, and the tiny air sacs. There are different types of lung cancer. Non-small cell lung cancer, or NSCLC, accounts for 70% to 80% of lung cancers. Small cell lung cancer or oat cell carcinoma, or SCLC, accounts for 25% of lung cancers. Both types can be fatal. They invade surrounding tissue and can spread to other parts of the body through the lymph nodes and bloodstream.
lung cancer is the most common and most deadly cancer in the US. Roughly 160,000 deaths occur each year. Men and woman are equally affected. Most types of lung cancer are aggressive, spreading early in their course. lung cancer can cause life threatening complications in the chest and spread to distant sites throughout the body causing death in this way. A person also may have symptoms which are reactions to tumors or a substance they make, called a paraneoplastic syndrome.
What are the causes and risks of the disease?

Inhaling tobacco smoke probably causes at least 90% of all lung cancer. Smokers have more than 30 times the risk of nonsmokers. A person's risk for lung cancer depends on how many packs of cigarettes he or she smokes each day and for how many years. People who quit smoking remain at risk, sometimes for decades. People exposed to radiation, radon, asbestos, and probably heavy l are also at risk.
lung cancer occurs if the cells lining the airways of the lungs are constantly exposed and stimulated by cancer-causing substances over several decades. This changes the genetic DNA, makeup of cells and results in the uncontrollable growth of abnormal cells.
It is very rare for a person who has not been exposed to cigarette smoke or radiation to develop small cell lung cancer. It occurs most often in middle aged and elderly people who have been exposed to cancer-causing poisons for several decades.

Symptoms & Signs

What are the signs and symptoms of the disease?

Symptoms of lung cancer include:
a cough
blood-tinged spit
shortness of breath
dull, achy chest pain
sharp chest pain that gets worse when the person moves
hoarseness
trouble swallowing
A person with this disease may also have:
fever
loss of appetite
weight loss
muscle loss
fatigue
Sometimes the disease has spread by the time it is diagnosed. If so, symptoms can include:
headache
blurred vision
seizures
strokes
slurred speech
neurologic problems
People often come to the healthcare provider with symptoms of bone pain, pneumonia, enlarged, hard, mostly painless lymph nodes, an enlarged liver and jaundice. Listening to the heart, the doctor may find dullness, loss of breath sounds, a pleuritic rub or a sound caused by an irritated lung lining, and wheezing. The person's skin may be bluish, and the tips of his or her fingers may be abnormally enlarged.
lung cancer also can cause many serious problems ranging from paralysis to heart failure.

Diagnosis & Tests

How is the disease diagnosed?

The disease is diagnosed by taking a tissue sample of the lung. There are many ways to collect a tissue sample. Biopsies are obtained wherever the cancer is most accessible. Needle puncture, brush or pinch biopsy is frequently all that is needed. Various ways to collect tissue include:
needle aspiration of pleural fluid through the chest wall
pleural biopsy
mediastinoscopy
bronchoscopy
needle biopsy of a liver mass
biopsy of tissue from a peripheral lymph node obtained either through needle biopsy or a surgical incision
biopsy of a mass in any of the body
Through this tissue sample, doctors can tell if the cancer is small cell or non-small cell. Small cell is an aggressive lung cancer deriving from the neuroendocrine cells. It usually has spread cancer cells throughout the body at the time of diagnosis. Frequently a bone marrow biopsy is performed to see if it has spread to the bones. Sing for small cell lung cancer is generally divided into limited disease versus extensive disease.
Non-small cell lung cancer can include all kinds of different cells. Some are flat and scaly, while other disguise themselves as lung cells. These cancers are categorized or sed differently than small cell because this type of lung cancer may be curable. In order to evaluate whether removing all or part of the lung may be feasible, more tests are needed. This includes blood tests, MRI scan of the chest, and bronchoscopy. Other tests, including a bone scan, liver scan or CT scan, may also be needed.
Diagnostic sing is somewhat complex.
Se I consists of a lung mass that has not invaded the chest wall, trachea, or lymph nodes.
Se II can involve the lymph nodes in the area where the windpipe branches into the two lungs, but not the center of the chest around the heart.
Se III consists of involvement of lymph nodes in the hilum, which is an area at the root of the lungs (III-A), or a locally invasive tumor (III-B).
Se IV involves any tumor in the lung that has spread outside of the chest.
At many times exact sing is not known until the chest is opened for surgery.
Prevention & Expectations

What can be done to prevent the disease?

This best way to prevent this cancer is not to smoke and to avoid exposure to second-hand smoke. People who want to quit smoking can try:
behavior modification programs
support groups
nicotine chewing gum
nicotine patches
bupropion medication
alternative approaches such as biofeedback, hypnosis, and acupuncture
Educating young people about the dangers of smoking is a key preventive strategy.
Radon is a cancer-causing substance that should also be avoided. It is sometimes found in the home. If present, it can be reduced to acceptable levels by various means, such as caulking and creating more ventilation.
Early diagnosis may help in reducing some deaths, however, lung cancer tends to spread early. There are no reliable screening blood tests or sputum tests, and screening chest X-rays have not been shown to be cost effective on a population-wide basis.
What are the long-term effects of the disease?

Se I cancers are considered curable by surgical removal 50 to 90% of the time.
Se II are curable, but less than 50% of the time. Curability drops off rapidly in later se disease.
People with se III-B and IV have an average survival of less than 1 year.
Small cell lung cancer with bulky static disease has a survival of less than 1 year as well. Some patients with grossly limited small cell lung cancer can survive for more than 2 years with aggressive treatment with combination chemotherapy and radiation therapy.
What are the risks to others?

Others are not put at risk since this type of cancer is not considered conious. People who continue to smoke expose others to the toxic substances in second hand smoke. Radon is a risk factor for any type of lung cancer. Asbestos has been linked to some non-small cell lung cancers.

Treatment & Monitoring

What are the treatments for the disease?

Small cell lung cancer spreads throughout the body. It is sensitive to chemotherapy and radiation therapy. Surgery to remove the cancer where it started is usually not helpful. Multiple agent chemotherapy is given with limited or extensive small cell lung cancer. Response rates are good and some complete remissions are attainable. Chemotherapy is often followed or sandwiched with radiation therapy to the Primary cancer site. Radiation to the brain has been used with small cell lung cancer because this is where it often spreads, even after treatment has been finished. Chemotherapy drugs that are used include etoposide, cisplatin, carboplatin, doxorubicin, vincristine, and cyclophosphamide.
Limited se non-small cell, such as se I and II cancer, are considered curable. Treatment includes the partial removal of the lung and the removal of lymph nodes in the chest cavity. This is followed up with radiation therapy. Chemotherapy in addition to the radiation may or may not be helpful. Pre- or postoperative chemotherapy have been given along with complete surgical removal. People with higher ses of cancer are not likely to benefit from extensive surgery. They are treated with radiation and/or chemotherapy to relieve symptoms and make them comfortable. Radiation therapy can be given from the outside of the body or through the windpipe. Chemotherapy drugs that have given response include vinblastine, vincristine, cisplatin, etoposide, and 5-fluorouracil (5-FU).
People who's cancer has spread to the brain may benefit from whole brain irradiation and corticosteroids to reduce brain swelling. Radiation and/or chemotherapy may relieve other symtoms including painful enlarged liver, bone pain caused by stases from the lung cancer, or general failing health.
Fluid in the chest containing cancerous cells is treated with needle or chest tube drainage followed by instillation of chemotherapy into the space within the chest that holds the lungs. This will dry up any fluid and improve symptoms. Normal lung is very sensitive to radiation damage, so a complete lung cannot be exposed to radiation. Experimental therapies are desirable for treatment of all ses of this disease since it has been so common and highly lethal. Additional information will benefit the hundreds of thousands of people who have yet to develop this disease. People with this disease often suffer from too much calcium in the blood. It is treated with corticosteroids, diphosphonate medicine, or Primary treatment of the cancer.
A team of medical experts is often needed to manage lung cancer. This includes thoracic surgeons, radiation therapists, cancer specialists, lung specialists, and radiologists. Experimental treatments are available at many local, regional, or national institutions. New drugs are being developed and tried in people who have incurable lung cancer. Terminal care can be provided by a hospice-d team.
What are the side effects of the treatments?

When surgery is done to remove part of a lung, it can result in the lung not being able to work. Before surgery, it is important to test the uninvolved lung to see if this can be tolerated. Opening the chest cavity is major surgery, and can have significant illness and even death associated with it.
Side effects of radiation include:
skin burn
redness, swelling, and pain in the lining of the esophagus, a condition called esophagitis
injuring the lungs
fatigue
nausea
Chemotherapy also has many side effects. The drugs that are used will cause:
hair loss
nausea
vomiting
lowered blood counts and risks of infections
potential need for transfusions
abnormal bleeding or blood clotting
damage to nerves, kidneys, and liver
People who receive radiation to the brain can have:
problems with short-term memory losses
difficulty walking
coordination problems
loss of brain cells
Some people may need daily oxygen even if they didn't before treatment. This disease can recur in spite of all of the above treatments.
What happens after treatment for the disease?

After treatment, people will be followed for lung function, any delayed or prolonged side effects of the treatments, and for recurrence of the disease.
How is the disease monitored?

Monitoring is by frequent visits to the healthcare provider. Physical exams, laboratory tests, chest CT, abdominal CT, and sometimes bronchoscopy are needed. The cancer may return within several months to a few years. People with lung cancer usually have a history of smoking. They remain at risk for development of other tumors, including another lung cancer primary.

Attribution

Author:Thomas Fisher, MD
Date Written:
Editor:Smith, Elizabeth, BA
Edit Date:05/25/00
Reviewer:Fern Carness, RN, MPH
Date Reviewed:04/11/01

Cancer of the Esophagus - Esophageal Cancer

Overview, Causes, & Risk Factors

Cancer of the Esophagus is a tumor that grows in the lining of the esophagus. The Esophagus is the tube connecting the mouth and upper throat to the stomach.
What is going on in the body?

The Esophagus carries swallowed food to the stomach using a coordinated muscular effort. There is a muscular door called a sphincter between the Esophagus and the stomach. esophageal cancer can start anywhere along the lining of the esophagus. It begins in the inside lining. It then grows through the muscular wall of the esophagus. It can spread to other parts of the body through the blood or lymphatic system.
What are the causes and risks of the disease?

There appear to be many causes and risk factors for esophageal cancer. Certain conditions, if present for a long time, increase a person's risk for esophageal cancer. These conditions include:
achalasia, a condition in which the Esophagus muscle cannot relax
Barrett's esophagus, an ulcer in the Esophagus caused by long-term gastroesophageal reflux disease, or GERD
diverticuli, or pouches in the lining of the esophagus
lye or burn-related damage
tylosis, a genetic skin problem
People who smoke cigarettes, chew tobacco, and drink alcohol are at a higher risk for this cancer. It is also thought that chronic and recurring irritation can increase the risk of esophageal cancer. These irritations include drinking very hot liquids, eating pickled foods, and being exposed to environmental toxins.
esophageal cancer is rarely seen in people younger than 25 years old. The disease is more common in men than in women. It is seen more often in African Americans than in Caucasians. Overall, esophageal cancer is relatively uncommon in the United States. In some parts of Asia it is the second most common cancer, accounting for as much as 50% of all cancer deaths.

Symptoms & Signs

What are the signs and symptoms of the disease?

Someone who has esophageal cancer may have the following symptoms:
difficulty swallowing
heartburn
inability to swallow solid foods and, eventually, liquids
pain with swallowing
weight loss
If the cancer spreads to other body organs, it may cause pain. Since it spreads easily to the liver, the person may develop the following symptoms of liver failure:
abdominal pain
enlarged liver
jaundice, or yellowing of the eyes and skin

Diagnosis & Tests

How is the disease diagnosed?

Diagnosis of esophageal cancer begins with a medical history and physical exam. The healthcare provider may order an endoscopy of the esophagus. If a tumor is seen, a biopsy is done.
If the tumor is found to be cancerous, a sing work-up is done. This includes a physical exam, blood tests, and CAT scans of the chest and abdomen. This will give an indication of the size of the tumor. It will also show any stasis to the chest, lymph nodes, lungs, or liver.

Prevention & Expectations

What can be done to prevent the disease?

The best way to prevent esophageal cancer is to avoid tobacco and alcohol.
People who have Barrett's Esophagus need aggressive treatment of their GERD to prevent esophageal cancer. Treatment for GERD may include the following:
fundoplication, a surgical procedure that strengthens the esophageal sphincter
GI stimulants that empty the stomach faster, such as metoclopramide
H2 blockers, such as cimetidine, ranitidine, and famotidine
proton pump inhibitors, such as omeprazole, lansoprazole, or rabeprazole
People with Barrett's Esophagus may have regular endoscopies, which use a lighted tube to examine the esophagus. Biopsies, which involve removing a small piece of tissue, are sometimes needed. These screenings may detect an esophageal cancer early, when it is most treatable.
What are the long-term effects of the disease?

esophageal cancer is a deadly disease. The 5-year survival rate is poor, even with aggressive treatment. It often recurs, despite surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation therapy.
What are the risks to others?

esophageal cancer is not conious. It poses no risk to others.

Treatment & Monitoring

What are the treatments for the disease?

Persons who have stases that cannot be cured with surgery may still benefit from radiation therapy or chemotherapy. Radiation does not help if the cancer has spread to the liver or lungs.
Chemotherapy has short-term benefit for cancer that has spread to other parts of the body. It can be combined with radiation therapy. It involves toxic drugs, and the potential benefit must be balanced with the side effects.
Surgery of the Esophagus can be complicated. It may involve removing the esophagus, stomach, spleen, and lymph nodes inside the chest. Another part of the lower bowel or stomach can be pulled up and attached to the remaining esophagus. This allows the person to continue eating. People need to be in relatively good health to tolerate this surgery.
Whether preoperative chemotherapy and radiation therapy can improve the cure rate with this extensive surgery is controversial and under study.
What are the side effects of the treatments?

Following are some of the side effects of radiation:
burning of the skin
damage to the heart or lungs
irritation of the esophagus
loss of appetite
more difficulty swallowing
nausea
Side effects of chemotherapy include the following:
anemia, or a low red blood cell count
diarrhea
hair loss
increased susceptibility to infection
irritation of the mouth and intestines
nausea and vomiting
Surgery alone is associated with a 5% to 10% mortality rate. Side effects include bleeding, infection, and allergic reaction to anesthesia.
What happens after treatment for the disease?

It may take several months to recover from treatment. The person who may be cured can live a relatively normal lifestyle. He or she may not be able to eat certain foods. He or she also may not be able to absorb iron and vitamins or certain foods. Most people, if they survive, do not have long-term effects from chemotherapy or radiation.
How is the disease monitored?

esophageal cancer is monitored with physical exams, lab tests, endoscopies, chest X-rays, and CAT scans or MRIs. Any new or worsening symptoms should be reported to the healthcare provider.

Attribution

Author:Thomas Fisher, MD
Date Written:
Editor:Ballenberg, Sally, BS
Edit Date:08/31/01
Reviewer:Adam Brochert, MD
Date Reviewed:07/27/01

How do I use the ReBuilder for neuropathy pain?

Simply sit in your easy chair and turn on the ReBuilder for a soothing 30 minute treatment.

What is the ReBuilder?

The ReBuilder is a proven and doctor recommended, electronic pain treatment. The ReBuilder is fully registered with the FDA for the treatment of neuropathic symptoms. It is covered by private insurance companies such as Empire Life, Sun Life, and Desjardins, with more joining the list daily. The ReBuilder is specifically designed for the pain related to Peripheral neuropathy of any etiology, such as diabetic, idiopathic, alcoholic, inherited, and the pain of chemotherapy induced neuropathy. The ReBuilder is designed to be used in the privacy of your own home.
It consists of a small, hand held, battery powered stimulator that sends a comfortable electronic pulse to your feet and legs (or hands and arms) that can restore full nerve function. You can think of it like a heart pacemaker that restores and improves heart function: the ReBuilder restores, stabilizes, and rebuilds the nerves in your hands and feet.
ReBuilder 300 Unit
ReBuilder 2407 Professional Unit
Before each impulse is sent, the ReBuilder analyzes the waveform of your nerves, determines any abnormalities, creates the unique waveform of the healing signal necessary, administers that signal to both feet simultaneously, and then re-evaluates the result. This process happens 7.83 times every second. Each successive signal is constantly being adjusted to conform to what your nerves need in real time. The ReBuilder is powered by a common 9 volt battery and is microprocessor controlled.
The ReBuilder is not a common TENS device that is designed to temporarily block nerve signals; the ReBuilder is a unique form of TENS and restores (opens) nerve pathways so that your nerves function properly. Relief is usually felt with the very first treatment.
To use it, you simply sit in your easy chair, put on the conductive socks, and turn on the ReBuilder for a soothing 30 minute treatment. Your ReBuilder automatically shuts itself off at the end of the treatment session (just in case you fall asleep).
The ReBuilder works for your feet and legs, hands and arms... it even can be used to relieve pain in your lower back or the numbness associated with the sciatic nerve (sciatica). Sometimes this condition can be referred to as piriformis entrapment syndrome.
Your ReBuilder can also treat the painful symptoms of arthritis, MS, and many other forms of chronic pain, including post-surgical pain. Your ReBuilder can also stop the pain and numbness of sciatica. The sciatic nerve can become pinched within overworked muscles and the ReBuilder can quickly eliminate those symptoms as well.
The ReBuilder is used in Cancer treatment Centers all over the world to eliminate the neuropathy symptoms that develop of the result of chemotherapy. If the ReBuilder can stop and reverse pain from chemo-induced neuropathy, it can surely help you.
"The ReBuilder has helped our patients who have painful side effects from chemotherapy neuropathy so much..." Cancer Treatment Centers of America.
The difference between the ReBuilder and a TENS device

The ReBuilder is not a "common" TENS device. The ReBuilder is specifically designed to treat the painful symptoms of neuropathy and sciatica. Neuropathic and sciatic pain is diffuse, usually affecting the entire lower half of the body, ly the feet and legs. Sometimes Peripheral neuropathy can also affect your hands, and arms. Because of this diffuse, bilateral nature of neuropathy and nerve pain in general, the area to be treated is too large to be treated with a common TENS. In addition, a common TENS, whether it is microcurrent or not, blocks nerve transmissions, while the ReBuilder does the exact opposite...it opens and conditions the nerves and the nerve paths.
It can be very dangerous to use a common TENS device in the way the ReBuilder is used. This is because a common TENS device is designed to be used with the conductive skin electrodes placed close together, normally about 4 to 6 inches apart. If you were to place the pads farther apart, such as one pad on one foot and the other on the other foot like the ReBuilder does, the common TENS will unsafely continue to put out more and more current until it either burns itself out or it burns out your nerves. It can over stimulate your nerves and cause them to go into fibrillation, (like in a heart attack), causing permanent damage.
The ReBuilder has special bio feedback circuits built in that not only isolate the power source from the patient, but can automatically adjust and limit the output power for the patient's safety.
The ReBuilder is different from other common TENS devices in that it analyzes in real time, the waveform that the nerves are responding with, and then creates a specific waveform to gently nudge the dysfunctional nerves back to full function. We have discovered in our research here in our own lab, that nerves communicate with each other like an FM radio. In an FM radio, each station is looking for a specific frequency and waveform as a 'carrier". Then the data sent from the radio station is translated to music or voice. Similarly, your nerves expect to communicate with each other, your brain, and your muscles with specific frequencies and waveforms. The ReBuilder reads all this data from your nerves, determines the various deficiencies, creates a custom output signal, and does it all in real time, and it does this 7.83 times per second to give your nerves a chance to re-polarize and not become overloaded or go into fibrillation.
While most TENS use a simple square wave, and others use a dampened sinosoidal waveform, neither of these outputs speak the special of nerves, therefore they only serve to, in effect, shout to the nerves. The ReBuilder whispers.
The ReBuilder was originally cleared by the FDA in 1987 and has been under going constant improvements ever since then. It was approved for Medicare and Insurance coverage in 2005. One such improvement was the addition of special circuitry to enable the ReBuilder to administer its healing signals via special, silver laced electrically conductive socks and gloves. These gloves are manufactured by us to match the impedance and other electrical parameters of the ReBuilder to provide a safe, effective treatment system for the pain associated with diabetic Peripheral neuropathy, sciatica, Peripheral vascular disease and Peripheral artery disease.
Special safety alert: There is only one ReBuilder, and you should be careful not to accept any substitutes such as a regular TENS or cheap, imported, socks or gloves.
A regular TENS is designed to be used with the electrodes placed about 4 to 6 inches apart. When the electrodes are placed one on each foot or hand, the amount of tissue between the electrodes is about 300 times greater, which means that the electrical resistance is 300 times greater. A regular TENS has to overcome this higher resistance, and can overload itself. Regular TENS do not have circuits to "blow a safety fuse" so they keep right on pumping out more and more current, and this can cause permanent, even fatal damage to your nerves. Regular TENS devices can be very dangerous. Always demand "Brand Specific: ReBuilder Model 300 or Model 2407."
Do not accept any conductive garment that does not have a permanent sewn-in label indicating that it is the authentic ReBuilder Brand Specific Conductive Garment. Cheap imitations are likely manufactured in China, and besides having a lesser manufacturing quality relative to the sewing, we have found many samples to be contaminated with chemicals just like the contamination found in Chinese drywall and Chinese toys. When contaminated, the electrical impulses can cause a transdermal (across the skin) migration of lead, asbestos, cadmium, etc. into the skin of your feet and can cause permanent damage that is not immediately noticeable, but cannot be reversed. You can cause permanent damage to the nerves in your feet or hands if you use cheap imitation gloves or socks.
Our socks are manufactured here in the US by us, in our own manufacturing facility. The material first undergoes a rigorous QC process, then washed, then special conductive minerals are infused into the material to standardize the conductivity and make the garments sustain repeated washings and to properly and safely carry the unique ReBuilder impulse to your nerves.
Always demand the original, Brand Specific, ReBuilder products.
How does the ReBuilder work?

The ReBuilder uses special electrically conductive socks or gloves (threaded with pure silver strands) or conductive adhesive pads, or twin compartment footbath (your preference) to deliver the healing impulses at the rate of 7.83 signals per second. This specific rate is particularly comforting to nerve cells because it gives each cell sufficient time to repolarize between impulses.
While sitting in your chair or in bed, this soothing signal travels from one foot, up the leg, across the nerve roots in the lower back, then down the other leg to the other foot. This occurs because one sock is electrically positive while the other sock is simultaneously electrically negative, this ensures the signal travels from one foot to the other and effectively treats all the nerves in the lower half of the body at the same time.
The ReBuilder's microprocessor then measures several electrical aspects of your nerves and muscles and automatically adjusts itself to your specific situation and therapeutic needs. The tingling impulses then reverse direction and goes from one foot all the way back to the other foot. In this way, all the nerves from the lumbar area down to your toes are treated.

This back and forth action acts to "wake up" dormant nerves so they function normally again, and re-educates the nerve pathways so you don't get those "short circuits" of shooting pains. It also strengthens weakened leg muscles to help you walk more securely, confidently, and safely.
One portion of the ReBuilder's signal resets the nerve's set points, thus restoring natural sensations and canceling tingling and numbness. Please read on below for a more technical physiological explanation of the physiologic basis of the ReBuilder.
Another unique benefit of the ReBuilder is that it stimulates the brain to release endorphins (pain relievers manufactured by your own body with no side effects) that travel throughout your entire body via the blood stream, helping you to relax and assisting you to fall asleep, and rest all night without medications. These endorphins can also help relieve the pain of arthritis, etc.
Sometimes it can help to understand exactly how your nerves work. To read about the anatomy of your nerves in detail, click here.

The ReBuilder effective for the treatment of the chronic pain of Peripheral Neuropathy

How do I use the ReBuilder for neuropathy pain?

Simply sit in your easy chair and turn on the ReBuilder for a soothing 30 minute treatment.

What is the ReBuilder?

The ReBuilder is a proven and doctor recommended, electronic pain treatment. The ReBuilder is fully registered with the FDA for the treatment of neuropathic symptoms. It is covered by private insurance companies such as Empire Life, Sun Life, and Desjardins, with more joining the list daily. The ReBuilder is specifically designed for the pain related to Peripheral neuropathy of any etiology, such as diabetic, idiopathic, alcoholic, inherited, and the pain of chemotherapy induced neuropathy. The ReBuilder is designed to be used in the privacy of your own home.
It consists of a small, hand held, battery powered stimulator that sends a comfortable electronic pulse to your feet and legs (or hands and arms) that can restore full nerve function. You can think of it like a heart pacemaker that restores and improves heart function: the ReBuilder restores, stabilizes, and rebuilds the nerves in your hands and feet.
ReBuilder 300 Unit
ReBuilder 2407 Professional Unit
Before each impulse is sent, the ReBuilder analyzes the waveform of your nerves, determines any abnormalities, creates the unique waveform of the healing signal necessary, administers that signal to both feet simultaneously, and then re-evaluates the result. This process happens 7.83 times every second. Each successive signal is constantly being adjusted to conform to what your nerves need in real time. The ReBuilder is powered by a common 9 volt battery and is microprocessor controlled.
The ReBuilder is not a common TENS device that is designed to temporarily block nerve signals; the ReBuilder is a unique form of TENS and restores (opens) nerve pathways so that your nerves function properly. Relief is usually felt with the very first treatment.
To use it, you simply sit in your easy chair, put on the conductive socks, and turn on the ReBuilder for a soothing 30 minute treatment. Your ReBuilder automatically shuts itself off at the end of the treatment session (just in case you fall asleep).
The ReBuilder works for your feet and legs, hands and arms... it even can be used to relieve pain in your lower back or the numbness associated with the sciatic nerve (sciatica). Sometimes this condition can be referred to as piriformis entrapment syndrome.
Your ReBuilder can also treat the painful symptoms of arthritis, MS, and many other forms of chronic pain, including post-surgical pain. Your ReBuilder can also stop the pain and numbness of sciatica. The sciatic nerve can become pinched within overworked muscles and the ReBuilder can quickly eliminate those symptoms as well.
The ReBuilder is used in Cancer treatment Centers all over the world to eliminate the neuropathy symptoms that develop of the result of chemotherapy. If the ReBuilder can stop and reverse pain from chemo-induced neuropathy, it can surely help you.
"The ReBuilder has helped our patients who have painful side effects from chemotherapy neuropathy so much..." Cancer Treatment Centers of America.
The difference between the ReBuilder and a TENS device

The ReBuilder is not a "common" TENS device. The ReBuilder is specifically designed to treat the painful symptoms of neuropathy and sciatica. Neuropathic and sciatic pain is diffuse, usually affecting the entire lower half of the body, ly the feet and legs. Sometimes Peripheral neuropathy can also affect your hands, and arms. Because of this diffuse, bilateral nature of neuropathy and nerve pain in general, the area to be treated is too large to be treated with a common TENS. In addition, a common TENS, whether it is microcurrent or not, blocks nerve transmissions, while the ReBuilder does the exact opposite...it opens and conditions the nerves and the nerve paths.
It can be very dangerous to use a common TENS device in the way the ReBuilder is used. This is because a common TENS device is designed to be used with the conductive skin electrodes placed close together, normally about 4 to 6 inches apart. If you were to place the pads farther apart, such as one pad on one foot and the other on the other foot like the ReBuilder does, the common TENS will unsafely continue to put out more and more current until it either burns itself out or it burns out your nerves. It can over stimulate your nerves and cause them to go into fibrillation, (like in a heart attack), causing permanent damage.
The ReBuilder has special bio feedback circuits built in that not only isolate the power source from the patient, but can automatically adjust and limit the output power for the patient's safety.
The ReBuilder is different from other common TENS devices in that it analyzes in real time, the waveform that the nerves are responding with, and then creates a specific waveform to gently nudge the dysfunctional nerves back to full function. We have discovered in our research here in our own lab, that nerves communicate with each other like an FM radio. In an FM radio, each station is looking for a specific frequency and waveform as a 'carrier". Then the data sent from the radio station is translated to music or voice. Similarly, your nerves expect to communicate with each other, your brain, and your muscles with specific frequencies and waveforms. The ReBuilder reads all this data from your nerves, determines the various deficiencies, creates a custom output signal, and does it all in real time, and it does this 7.83 times per second to give your nerves a chance to re-polarize and not become overloaded or go into fibrillation.
While most TENS use a simple square wave, and others use a dampened sinosoidal waveform, neither of these outputs speak the special of nerves, therefore they only serve to, in effect, shout to the nerves. The ReBuilder whispers.
The ReBuilder was originally cleared by the FDA in 1987 and has been under going constant improvements ever since then. It was approved for Medicare and Insurance coverage in 2005. One such improvement was the addition of special circuitry to enable the ReBuilder to administer its healing signals via special, silver laced electrically conductive socks and gloves. These gloves are manufactured by us to match the impedance and other electrical parameters of the ReBuilder to provide a safe, effective treatment system for the pain associated with diabetic Peripheral neuropathy, sciatica, Peripheral vascular disease and Peripheral artery disease.
Special safety alert: There is only one ReBuilder, and you should be careful not to accept any substitutes such as a regular TENS or cheap, imported, socks or gloves.
A regular TENS is designed to be used with the electrodes placed about 4 to 6 inches apart. When the electrodes are placed one on each foot or hand, the amount of tissue between the electrodes is about 300 times greater, which means that the electrical resistance is 300 times greater. A regular TENS has to overcome this higher resistance, and can overload itself. Regular TENS do not have circuits to "blow a safety fuse" so they keep right on pumping out more and more current, and this can cause permanent, even fatal damage to your nerves. Regular TENS devices can be very dangerous. Always demand "Brand Specific: ReBuilder Model 300 or Model 2407."
Do not accept any conductive garment that does not have a permanent sewn-in label indicating that it is the authentic ReBuilder Brand Specific Conductive Garment. Cheap imitations are likely manufactured in China, and besides having a lesser manufacturing quality relative to the sewing, we have found many samples to be contaminated with chemicals just like the contamination found in Chinese drywall and Chinese toys. When contaminated, the electrical impulses can cause a transdermal (across the skin) migration of lead, asbestos, cadmium, etc. into the skin of your feet and can cause permanent damage that is not immediately noticeable, but cannot be reversed. You can cause permanent damage to the nerves in your feet or hands if you use cheap imitation gloves or socks.
Our socks are manufactured here in the US by us, in our own manufacturing facility. The material first undergoes a rigorous QC process, then washed, then special conductive minerals are infused into the material to standardize the conductivity and make the garments sustain repeated washings and to properly and safely carry the unique ReBuilder impulse to your nerves.
Always demand the original, Brand Specific, ReBuilder products.
How does the ReBuilder work?

The ReBuilder uses special electrically conductive socks or gloves (threaded with pure silver strands) or conductive adhesive pads, or twin compartment footbath (your preference) to deliver the healing impulses at the rate of 7.83 signals per second. This specific rate is particularly comforting to nerve cells because it gives each cell sufficient time to repolarize between impulses.
While sitting in your chair or in bed, this soothing signal travels from one foot, up the leg, across the nerve roots in the lower back, then down the other leg to the other foot. This occurs because one sock is electrically positive while the other sock is simultaneously electrically negative, this ensures the signal travels from one foot to the other and effectively treats all the nerves in the lower half of the body at the same time.
The ReBuilder's microprocessor then measures several electrical aspects of your nerves and muscles and automatically adjusts itself to your specific situation and therapeutic needs. The tingling impulses then reverse direction and goes from one foot all the way back to the other foot. In this way, all the nerves from the lumbar area down to your toes are treated.

This back and forth action acts to "wake up" dormant nerves so they function normally again, and re-educates the nerve pathways so you don't get those "short circuits" of shooting pains. It also strengthens weakened leg muscles to help you walk more securely, confidently, and safely.
One portion of the ReBuilder's signal resets the nerve's set points, thus restoring natural sensations and canceling tingling and numbness. Please read on below for a more technical physiological explanation of the physiologic basis of the ReBuilder.
Another unique benefit of the ReBuilder is that it stimulates the brain to release endorphins (pain relievers manufactured by your own body with no side effects) that travel throughout your entire body via the blood stream, helping you to relax and assisting you to fall asleep, and rest all night without medications. These endorphins can also help relieve the pain of arthritis, etc.
Sometimes it can help to understand exactly how your nerves work. To read about the anatomy of your nerves in detail, click here.

Epidemiology

Main article: Epidemiology of cancer

Death rate from malignant cancer per 100,000 inhabitants in 2004.^[99]

  no data

  ≤ 55

  55-80

  80-105

  105-130

  130-155

  155-180

  180-205

  205-230

  230-255

  255-280

  280-305

  ≥ 305

In 2008 approximately 12.7 million cancers were diagnosed (excluding non-melanoma skin cancers and other non-invasive cancers) and 7.6 million people died of cancer worldwide.^[3] Cancers as a group account for approximately 13% of all deaths each year with the most common being: lung cancer (1.3 million deaths), stomach cancer (803,000 deaths), colorectal cancer (639,000 deaths), liver cancer (610,000 deaths), and breast cancer (519,000 deaths).^[100] This makes invasive cancer the leading cause of death in the developed world and the second leading cause of death in the developing world.^[3] Over half of cases occur in the developing world.^[3]
Global cancer rates have been increasing primarily due to an aging population and lifestyle changes in the developing world.^[3] The most significant risk factor for developing cancer is old age.^[101] Although it is possible for cancer to strike at any age, most people who are diagnosed with invasive cancer are over the age of 65.^[101] According to cancer researcher Robert A. Weinberg, "If we lived long enough, sooner or later we all would get cancer."^[102] Some of the association between aging and cancer is attributed to immunosenescence,^[103] errors accumulated in DNA over a lifetime, and age-related changes in the endocrine system.^[104]
Some slow-growing cancers are particularly common. Autopsy studies in Europe and Asia have shown that up to 36% of people have undiagnosed and apparently harmless thyroid cancer at the time of their deaths, and that 80% of men develop prostate cancer by age 80.^[105][106] As these cancers, often very small, did not cause the person's death, identifying them would have represented overdiagnosis rather than useful medical care.
The three most common childhood cancers are leukemia (34%), brain tumors (23%), and lymphomas (12%).^[107] Rates of childhood cancer have increased between 0.6% per year between 1975 to 2002 in the United States^[108] and by 1.1% per year between 1978 and 1997 in Europe.^[107]

History

Hippocrates (ca. 460 BC – ca. 370 BC) described several kinds of cancers, referring to them with the Greek word carcinos (crab or crayfish), among others.^[109] This name comes from the appearance of the cut surface of a solid malignant tumour, with "the veins stretched on all sides as the animal the crab has its feet, whence it derives its name".^[110] Since it was against Greek tradition to open the body, Hippocrates only described and made drawings of outwardly visible tumors on the skin, nose, and breasts. Treatment was based on the humor theory of four bodily fluids (black and yellow bile, blood, and phlegm). According to the patient's humor, treatment consisted of diet, blood-letting, and/or laxatives. Through the centuries it was discovered that cancer could occur anywhere in the body, but humor-theory based treatment remained popular until the 19th century with the discovery of cells.

Engraving with two views of a Dutch woman who had a tumor removed from her neck in 1689.

Celsus (ca. 25 BC - 50 AD) translated carcinos into the Latin cancer, also meaning crab. Galen (2nd century AD) called benign tumours oncos, Greek for swelling, reserving Hippocrates' carcinos for malignant tumours. He later added the suffix -oma, Greek for swelling, giving the name carcinoma.
The oldest known description and surgical treatment of cancer was discovered in Egypt and dates back to approximately 1600 BC. The Papyrus describes 8 cases of ulcers of the breast that were treated by cauterization, with a tool called "the fire drill." The writing says about the disease, "There is no treatment."^[111]
In the 16th and 17th centuries, it became more acceptable for doctors to dissect bodies to discover the cause of death. The German professor Wilhelm Fabry believed that breast cancer was caused by a milk clot in a mammary duct. The Dutch professor Francois de la Boe Sylvius, a follower of Descartes, believed that all disease was the outcome of chemical processes, and that acidic lymph fluid was the cause of cancer. His contemporary Nicolaes Tulp believed that cancer was a poison that slowly spreads, and concluded that it was contagious.^[112]
The first cause of cancer was identified by British surgeon Percivall Pott, who discovered in 1775 that cancer of the scrotum was a common disease among chimney sweeps. The work of other individual physicians led to various insights, but when physicians started working together they could make firmer conclusions.
With the widespread use of the microscope in the 18th century, it was discovered that the 'cancer poison' spread from the primary tumor through the lymph nodes to other sites ("metastasis"). This view of the disease was first formulated by the English surgeon Campbell De Morgan between 1871 and 1874.^[113] The use of surgery to treat cancer had poor results due to problems with hygiene. The renowned Scottish surgeon Alexander Monro saw only 2 breast tumor patients out of 60 surviving surgery for two years. In the 19th century, asepsis improved surgical hygiene and as the survival statistics went up, surgical removal of the tumor became the primary treatment for cancer. With the exception of William Coley who in the late 19th century felt that the rate of cure after surgery had been higher before asepsis (and who injected bacteria into tumors with mixed results), cancer treatment became dependent on the individual art of the surgeon at removing a tumor. During the same period, the idea that the body was made up of various tissues, that in turn were made up of millions of cells, laid rest the humor-theories about chemical imbalances in the body. The age of cellular pathology was born.
The genetic basis of cancer was recognised in 1902 by the German zoologist Theodor Boveri, professor of zoology at Munich and later in Würzburg.^[114] He discovered a method to generate cells with multiple copies of the centrosome, a structure he discovered and named. He postulated that chromosomes were distinct and transmitted different inheritance factors. He suggested that mutations of the chromosomes could generate a cell with unlimited growth potential which could be passed onto its descendants. He proposed the existence of cell cycle check points, tumour suppressor genes and oncogenes. He speculated that cancers might be caused or promoted by radiation, physical or chemical insults or by pathogenic microorganisms.

1938 poster identifying surgery, x-rays and radium as the proper treatments for cancer.

When Marie Curie and Pierre Curie discovered radiation at the end of the 19th century, they stumbled upon the first effective non-surgical cancer treatment. With radiation also came the first signs of multi-disciplinary approaches to cancer treatment. The surgeon was no longer operating in isolation, but worked together with hospital radiologists to help patients. The complications in communication this brought, along with the necessity of the patient's treatment in a hospital facility rather than at home, also created a parallel process of compiling patient data into hospital files, which in turn led to the first statistical patient studies.
A founding paper of cancer epidemiology was the work of Janet Lane-Claypon, who published a comparative study in 1926 of 500 breast cancer cases and 500 control patients of the same background and lifestyle for the British Ministry of Health. Her ground-breaking work on cancer epidemiology was carried on by Richard Doll and Austin Bradford Hill, who published "Lung Cancer and Other Causes of Death In Relation to Smoking. A Second Report on the Mortality of British Doctors" followed in 1956 (otherwise known as the British doctors study). Richard Doll left the London Medical Research Center (MRC), to start the Oxford unit for Cancer epidemiology in 1968. With the use of computers, the unit was the first to compile large amounts of cancer data. Modern epidemiological methods are closely linked to current^[when?] concepts of disease and public health policy. Over the past 50 years, great efforts have been spent on gathering data across medical practise, hospital, provincial, state, and even country boundaries to study the interdependence of environmental and cultural factors on cancer incidence.
Cancer patient treatment and studies were restricted to individual physicians' practices until World War II, when medical research centers discovered that there were large international differences in disease incidence. This insight drove national public health bodies to make it possible to compile health data across practises and hospitals, a process that many countries do today. The Japanese medical community observed that the bone marrow of victims of the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki was completely destroyed. They concluded that diseased bone marrow could also be destroyed with radiation, and this led to the discovery of bone marrow transplants for leukemia. Since World War II, trends in cancer treatment are to improve on a micro-level the existing treatment methods, standardize them, and globalize them to find cures through epidemiology and international partnerships.

Society and culture

While many diseases (such as heart failure) may have a worse prognosis than most cases of cancer, it is the subject of widespread fear and taboos. Euphemisms, once "a long illness", and now informally as "the big C", provide distance and soothe superstitions.^[115] This deep belief that cancer is necessarily a difficult and usually deadly disease is reflected in the systems chosen by society to compile cancer statistics: the most common form of cancer—non-melanoma skin cancers, accounting for about one-third of all cancer cases worldwide, but very few deaths^[116][117]—are excluded from cancer statistics specifically because they are easily treated and almost always cured, often in a single, short, outpatient procedure.^[118]
Cancer is regarded as a disease that must be "fought" to end the "civil insurrection"; a War on Cancer has been declared. Military metaphors are particularly common in descriptions of cancer's human effects, and they emphasize both the parlous state of the affected individual's health and the need for the individual to take immediate, decisive actions himself, rather than to delay, to ignore, or to rely entirely on others caring for him. The military metaphors also help rationalize radical, destructive treatments.^[119][120]
In the 1970s, a relatively popular alternative cancer treatment was a specialized form of talk therapy, based on the idea that cancer was caused by a bad attitude.^[88] People with a "cancer personality"—depressed, repressed, self-loathing, and afraid to express their emotions—were believed to have manifested cancer through subconscious desire. Some psychotherapists said that treatment to change the patient's outlook on life would cure the cancer.^[88] Among other effects, this belief allows society to blame the victim for having caused the cancer (by "wanting" it) or having prevented its cure (by not becoming a sufficiently happy, fearless, and loving person).^[121] It also increases patients' anxiety, as they incorrectly believe that natural emotions of sadness, anger or fear shorten their lives.^[121] The idea was excoriated by the notoriously outspoken Susan Sontag, who published Illness as Metaphor while recovering from treatment for breast cancer in 1978.^[88] Although the original idea is now generally regarded as nonsense, the idea partly persists in a reduced form with a widespread, but incorrect, belief that deliberately cultivating a habit of positive thinking will increase survival.^[121] This notion is particularly strong in breast cancer culture.^[121]

Research

Main article: Cancer research

Cancer research is the intense scientific effort to understand disease processes and discover possible therapies.
Research about cancer causes focusses on the following issues:

• Agents (e.g. viruses) and events (e.g. mutations) which cause or facilitate genetic changes in cells destined to become cancer.
• The precise nature of the genetic damage, and the genes which are affected by it.
• The consequences of those genetic changes on the biology of the cell, both in generating the defining properties of a cancer cell, and in facilitating additional genetic events which lead to further progression of the cancer.

The improved understanding of molecular biology and cellular biology due to cancer research has led to a number of new, effective treatments for cancer since President Nixon declared "War on Cancer" in 1971. Since 1971 the United States has invested over $200 billion on cancer research; that total includes money invested by public and private sectors and foundations.^[122] Despite this substantial investment, the country has seen a five percent decrease in the cancer death rate (adjusting for size and age of the population) between 1950 and 2005.^[123]
Leading cancer research organizations and projects include the American Association for Cancer Research, the American Cancer Society (ACS), the American Society of Clinical Oncology, the European Organisation for Research and Treatment of Cancer, Cancer Research UK, ECCO - the European Cancer Organisation, the National Cancer Institute, the National Comprehensive Cancer Network, and The Cancer Genome Atlas project at the NCI.